(8) Aftermath
Gudyarra (war) and the Bicentennial of Martial Law 2024 (8): Aftermath.
Photo: Meroo
Creek, with thanks to Gaye Frances Gorringe[1]
1825-1830
Although by 1825 a number of stockruns are abandoned, including the Coxes at Guntawang and the Government’s at Swallow Creek near Orange, causing a temporary hiatus, the colony continues to expand during 1825. Stock has increased from 33,733 in 1821 to 113,973 in 1825[2], and stockruns extend beyond Wellington Valley. The Liverpool Plains north of Mudgee comes into focus.
Sporadic conflicts continue and soldiers are placed at stations to protect stockworkers and prevent trouble from the ‘black natives’. William Cox writes of continued harassment of men and stock up to 1840 when a shepherd and 80 sheep are killed ‘down the river at ‘Bimbijong’’ near Mudgee[3]
Around this time ‘The Bathurst Hunt’ is established as a sport to hunt down dingos. Dingos are considered pests as they feed off the sheep.[4]
February 1825. Commandant Morisset returns to England.
Included in his writing about the 1824 wars on information given to him by his Magistrate informant, Lancelot Threlkeld relates that ‘a commanding officer’ stationed at Bathurst leaves for England ‘shortly after’ with a case packed with ‘forty-five heads…boiled down for the sake of the skulls’ [5]
May 1825. Governor Brisbane receives notice of his recall to Britain although he delays his departure.[6]
By June 1825. Reinforcements have been organised north and west of Bathurst, and during the month soldiers are sent to ‘Bells River’ at Wellington and Molong, west of Orange.
29 September 1825. The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser publishes an article on ‘The Aborigines’, a second hand account written by someone living in Dharug Country/’The Colony’ as reported to him by Mr. Harper who has established a mission at Wellington Valley/Wiradjuri Country. ‘It is impossible to state, with any degree of precision, the number of natives in this neighbourhood, but it certainly is not considerable’, and ‘there are five tribes, besides the Bathurst tribe, viz. — the Murrylong, the Nury, the Bendjang, the Mudjee, and the Myawl. The usual places of resort of some of these tribes are many miles from Wellington, but occasionally they all visit this spot’. The article proceeds in the style of an anthropological assessment with missionary intent and plans for a permanent mission with ‘Missionaries expected from England’. From Harper’s account the Wiradjuri and other Indigenous peoples in the region continue to live traditionally.
1 December 1825. Governor Brisbane sails for Britain on the Mary Hope. William Stewart temporarily assumes government ‘subject to the advice of the chief justice, Frances Forbes, and the archdeacon, T. H. Scott’.[7]
17 December 1825. Lieutenant-General Ralph Darling arrives and assumes government.[8]
25 August 1826 ‘Colo’ a ‘Gentleman’ of Brucedale[9] writes of his observations about the Wiradjuri he knows, including Windradyne/’Saturday’ and ‘Sunday’[10], their physicality and life, including the wars – ‘they lament very much the death of their women and children that were killed by our people’, and ‘I here take the liberty of giving my opinion of the cause of the disturbances that took place unfortunately between us and the Aborigines, and I do attribute the loss of lives, on both sides, to the imprudent and cruel conduct of some of our people’.[11]
10 October 1826. Governor Darling promises William Stewart a grant with immediate possession of 3,200 acres on Macquarie River (Mt. Pleasant).[12]
21 March 1829. Windradyne, who has been living ‘in peace
with the whites’,[13]dies
after being wounded during tribal conflict.
1830’s - 1840’s.
According to Heather Goodall's research (2008:33) ‘by the early 1830’s Aboriginal groups on all the major inland rivers’ (of NSW) are ‘in crisis as they rapidly’ lose ‘access to their fertile land, game and sacred sites’.
Wiradjuri and other Aboriginal clan members continue to live around towns in camps and maintain traditional lifestyle, ceremony and initiation, including at the Coxes’ ‘Dabee’ near Mudgee. Some are working at the stations for those who had taken their land.
From the 1830’s missions are increasingly established to house, educate into Western culture and Christianise those Aboriginal families and children who have survived the wars and conflicts and have been forced off their traditional lands around NSW[14]. As well as the Wellington Valley Mission, established in 1832, the list includes Apsley Mission, Blake's Fall Mission, Bomaderry Aboriginal Mission, Bowraville Aboriginal Mission and School, Brewarrina Aboriginal Mission, Goulburn Island Mission Station, Lake Macquarie (Ebenezer) Aboriginal Mission, La Perouse Aboriginal Mission, Malgoa Aboriginal Mission Station, Parramatta Aboriginal Mission, St Clair/Singleton Aboriginal Mission, Sydney Aboriginal Mission, Warangesda Aboriginal Mission. The practice of removing children from their families continues into the 1970’s in spite of the NSW Aborigines Protection Act being repealed in 1969.[15]
In 1832 there is record of an Aboriginal man from Mudgee region who is living at Wellington Mission.
29 May and 23 July 1833. ‘Return of Aboriginal Natives’ lists 59 Adult Males, 69 Women, 20 Male children and 4 female children from Mudgee, Bathurst, Patrick’s Plain, Capertee, Dabee, Mandorama, Warwick, Kings Plains, Coxs River and Coourbing. 7 men, 15 women and 8 male children are listed from the ‘Mudgee tribe’ (4 families listed as living at Mudgee and 3 families listed at Bathurst), one being ‘Sunday’(Gullimore) and his family. One man and wife are listed from the ‘Dabee tribe’ and living on Dabee country.[16]
1834. Two adult males, two women and one child living at Mudje/Mudgee are listed on the blanket returns from Wellington Valley Mission.[17]
‘Chief’ breastplates continue to be handed out including, King Witti of Mudgee; Billy Griffith, King of Waradgery (1866); King Bogan between Bathurst and Baroo (1840’s); Dawalla of Wagga Wagga; Frederick King of Gouboulion, Bathurst; Jerry, Overseer of Woolshed, Wellington; King Joe, Bangaroo Station, Canowindra (1844); John Piper, Conqueror of the Interior, Bathurst (1836); Oombejang-Watson, Wellington Valley, Missionary Stockman (mid 1800’s); Thommy Weavers, King of Curvy, Kangaroo Swamp, Bathurst; Toby, King of Wambangalang, Wellington; King Wagor-Day, Black Rock, Bathurst.[18]
Smallpox sweeps the region killing somewhere between 1 in 6 to 1 in 3 Aboriginal people. In November and December 1838 Influenza racks the colony and Reverend Gunther in Wellington remarks ‘Indeed the Blacks all over the district suffered much, generally more than the White population.’[19]
1837. Mudgee is surveyed for a town. It is gazetted in 1838.
1837-1841. Reverend Gunther arrives at Wellington Mission[20] in 1837. He makes excursions between Wellington and Mudgee (‘Guntawang’ and ‘the Cox’s’ are mentioned a number of times and ‘Mr. Lawsons Estate’ is also mentioned) as a travelling preacher and ends up taking a post in Mudgee in 1841. He keeps a journal in which he records the regularity of cultural activity, corroborees including at the mission, and the cultural responsibilities taking those who irregularly stay with him away for days at a time. While at Wellington he compiles a dictionary of Wiradjuri dialects of the local clans, incl. Wellington, Talbragar and Mudgee, and a list of Aboriginal peoples from the area. He also bewails his inability to break his ‘charges’ ties with their Elders and to fully convert them to Christianity. He does admit that the Wiradjuri’s attendance at services and English language classes is due to the fact that the mission provides food and tobacco.[21]
In 1840 he writes ‘"I proceeded to Mudgee, 5 miles to see whether I could get a congregation there on tomorrow’s Sunday. However, the New Township consists only of a Public House (always the first & grand thing required in this Country) & a few little bark huts." On a return journey that same year he mentions a camp of Aboriginal families not far from Mudgee.
11 August, 1840. The NSW Legislative Council passes ‘An Act to prohibit the Aboriginal Natives of New South Wales from having Fire Arms or Ammunition in their possession, without the permission of a Magistrate.’[22]
In his 1842 Annual Report of the Mission to the Aborigines at Wellington Reverend Gunther writes, ‘To see them on the one hand exterminated by violence, which I fear more frequently occurs in the interior than is publicly known and on the other hand gradually Swept away by debauchery and other evils arising from their intermixing with Europeans…and yet to hear these corruptors…declaim against them…and to enveigh against the whole race without any feeling of compassion, when Some commit an outrage…must prove deeply affecting and lamentable’.[23]
1843 Reverend Gunther is officially
appointed to Mudgee.
In the 1840’s there is still a Aboriginal camp around present-day Lawsons Street, Mudgee and nearby on ‘the hill in the rear of the gaol’ an Aboriginal cemetery.[24]
13 March 1844. Distribution list of blankets includes 16 issued in Mudgee.[25]
18 April 1846, Mudgee. Reverend Gunther answers the questions circulated by the Legislative Council’s Select Committee on the Condition of the Aborigines and calculates that ‘the number of Aborigines in this district I calculate to be from fifty to sixty’ having decreased by ‘about fifty percent’ over ‘the last five years’. At the same time he admits ‘having not resided here more than two years and a few months, I could not furnish a very accurate statement, as regards the numbers, &c., of the Aboriginal inhabitants of the Mudgee district’. At some stage he also makes a list of Wiradjuri and other Aboriginal people in the district and where they work, including at the Coxes, Lawson’s and Blackman’s runs. In this list he estimates the number of Aboriginal men to be twenty four, women to be ten and children to be five. [26]
Some Aboriginal families and groups maintain peaceful relationships with landholders and continue traditional practices into the late 1800’s around farms and stations, including in Mudgee district. As occurred at Wellington and other missions, it is also common practice for stations to use or be given Aboriginal girls and women as domestics or nannies for the station owner’s children.[27]
1849. The Commissioner for Crown Lands consistently reports ‘that across the whole of the area in which Europeans were then present, Aboriginal people were identified with, and claimed as their own, particular areas of land’. In the Murrumbidgee District Commissioner Bingham also reports, ‘that the Aboriginal people there ‘feel deeply the alien occupation of their country’.’ (Goodall 2008:19)
1850’s.
Members of my mother’s paternal line move to Mudgee region and in 1852 my great grandfather is born at Botobolar.
1852. My maternal line also moves to Mudgee region, settling for a while at Avisford and Maitland Bar. Great, great, great grandfather joins the mounted police and later prospects for gold.
1853. In the paternal line great, great grandfather is working at Oakfield where William Lawson took land. As the Wiradjuri and other Aboriginal people in the area are being used as labour surely they would have been in regular contact with, and worked alongside those Traditional Owners who survived.[28]
It is also hard to believe that my ancestors are ignorant of the continuing violent history of the region and of the embedded racism, especially against Aboriginal peoples. There must have been comments made and stories told. Colonel Godfrey Charles Mundy, who arrives in Australia in 1846 and takes the position of deputy general of the military forces, writes of hearing about ‘dreadful tales of cold-blooded carnage’, that 'reprisals are undertaken on a large scale’, of squatters stories of killing and poisoning ‘black fellows’, of openly discussed plans for the ‘destruction of the Aborigines’, and of the convenient deafness of authorities.[29]
Whatever the case, 'the great Australian
silence’[30]
reigns in my family as well through the generations.
Lawson Creek and Mt. Buckaroo (Photo: A.Maie)
POSTSCRIPT
What begins as a second Wiradyuri war of resistance continues with other nations and clans along the line of colonial expansion for decades. The escalation from resistance warfare to punitive retaliation and massacre continues to be the norm. Approximately 78 massacre sites have been so far identified and confirmed around NSW up to 1895.[31]
Including,
11 JULY 1835. Darling River via Boree station just west of Orange. Explorer Thomas Mitchell’s party shoots at Aboriginal people fleeing across the river after an argument over sexual services of Aboriginal women turns violent. They allegedly kill four Aboriginal people, one woman carrying a baby on her back.
27 MAY 1836.
Murray River. Feeling threatened by a
large group of Aboriginal people Thomas Mitchell divides his party into two to
round them up. One group of eight forces
the Aboriginal people into the river at gunpoint and the second division joins
to continue firing at them as they attempt to escape. Eleven are claimed killed. Mitchell names the area 'Mount Dispersion'.
1836. Thologolong station near Murray River – Dora Dora massacre. Wiradjuri men kill two stockmen. The settlers kill ‘at least’ a dozen Aboriginal men, women and children. The reprisal group is led by John Jobbins, who has taken land used as a camping site by the Wiradjuri (Cumberoona station). He quickly gains a reputation for his extreme violence.
26 January 1838. Waterloo Creek, S-W Moree. Major James Nunn, Commandant of the NSW Mounted Police is dispatched in 1837, with two sergeants and 20 troopers, to respond to Gamilaraay attacks in the Namoi River district resulting in stockmen being killed. The party is attacked near Gwydir River and a corporal wounded. The troopers open fire killing a number of Gamilaraay and pursue the survivors. “The number of deaths is contentious. Some reports suggest about eight, others put the figure at 40 to 50, while Reverend Lancelot Threlkeld estimated that 200 to 300 died.”[32]
25 April 1838. Sir George Gipps writes to Lord Glenelg in England that a number of Aboriginal people had lost their lives in conflict with the Mounted Police.[33]
10 June 1838 - Myall Creek Massacre. Just before sunset on 10 June 1838, as the Wirrayaraay people are preparing for their evening meal, a group of convicts, former convicts and one settler arrived at the station fully armed. The group ties up the frightened Wirrayaraay people and lead them away from their campsite. George Anderson, hut keeper at Myall Creek station, later describes the terror of the Wirrayaraay people as they are led away and slaughtered. Afterwards, their bodies are piled up and burned. The remains of at least 28 corpses are later observed at the site, but the final death toll has never been confirmed. Two women and a young girl are set aside, while another young girl is given to Yintiyantin, an Aboriginal stockman whose country is further south and who works on the Myall Creek station. Two boys escape by jumping into the creek.[34]
August 1839. Gum Creek Lagoon massacre. According to the reminiscences of Overlander James R. Byrne, in August, 1839, his party assists in searching for missing cattle and come across a ‘body of aborigines in a flat by the river’ who flee. ‘The tribe had made themselves much dreaded, and a perpetual state of warfare existed between them and the squatters, deaths on either side being not uncommon’. Three days later the party has rounded up the cattle and is proceeding past Gundagai when they come under guerrilla-like attacks, which last over a number of days – ‘they always took to the river, and by their skill in diving, escaped with impunity’. At a set of waterholes they surprise an Aboriginal man who wields a ‘war club’ injuring a stockman. He is shot in retaliation along with two others. Reinforcements of 8 mounted and armed men with dogs arrive. They all set off in pursuit of the fleeing Wiradjuri with ‘a volley poured in at random’ into the shrubbery as the dogs indicate Wiradjuri presence. Eventually five stockmen drive the Wiradjuri towards the river and another six stockmen lie in ambush, 'fired as the natives appeared and then rode down upon them with cutlasses'. ‘Nine of the aborigines were killed in this recounter’…’the thirteen dead bodies we left as they had fallen’ and the ‘half dozen’ left are allowed to escape. In total four stockmen and two horses are injured.[35]
1841-42. Bogan River massacre. William Lee, who accompanies Lawson on his first journey to Mudgee, is one of the first settlers in Bathurst taking land at Kelso. Lee accumulates more land over time and by 1841 is taking land at Bogon River. Lee’s stockmen move from his licenced area into an area protected for the use of the Ngiyampa at Namina waterhole. The Ngiyampa, who are travelling with the party, retaliate, killing three and wounding three at Tubba. Mounted police from Bathurst are summoned and go on the attack, killing fourteen Ngiyampa. Three other Ngiyampa are arrested to stand trial for murder, although one escapes. They are released for lack of evidence. The outcome causes an outcry in the squatting community and they attempt to amend the Crown Lands Occupation Act.[36]
The Australian, 26 August 1842. Governor Gipps is accused of failing to prove a case against Lee. The Legislative Council rejects the squatters' petition for an amendment to the Crown Lands Occupation Act.
By the late 1800’s Aboriginal peoples around NSW are moving or being
forcibly removed into reserves, the first being at La Perouse. Many of the reserves are only temporary. When the land is needed for farming,
development or ‘just because’ the houses are demolished, sometimes without
warning, and the Aboriginal communities forced to move on. Post WWI hundreds of smaller Aboriginal
reserves are de-gazetted and handed over to returning soldiers, but not to
Aboriginal returning soldiers. The
forced removal of Aboriginal children by the Aborigines Protection Board ramps
up[37]
and continues into the 1970’s.[38]
FOR LINKS TO
PREVIOUS BLOGS IN THIS SERIES VISIT: INTRODUCTION
[1] In 1851 gold is discovered by an unnamed Aboriginal
stockman at Hargraves, south of Meroo Creek.
By 1872 my maternal great, great grandmother is living on the goldfields
at ‘World’s End’, Meroo Creek, where she raises her family.
[2] Michael
Pearson (1984). ‘Bathurst Plains and Beyond: European Colonisation and
Aboriginal Resistance’ pdf, p. 71. Pearson also calculates that since colonial
arrival in the Bathurst district land taken up had increased to 91,636 acres in
1825 and non-Aboriginal population had increased to 33,595 in 1824.
[3] William Cox, The
History of Mudgee, p. 46
[4] The Sydney Morning Herald, 12 November
1912, p. 5. ‘Early History: The
Discovery of Bathurst’.
[5] Not an uncommon practice. A few years after the arrival of the First
Fleet Sir Joseph Banks in Britain is requesting heads of Aboriginal peoples
from Governor Phillip, which he is unable to supply at the time (1791). When the warrior Pemulwuy is killed in 1802,
during Governor King’s time, his head is cut off and sent to Sir Joseph Banks
in England and has not yet been located, nor have the three heads cut off (‘two grandfathers and one (grand)mother’) after they are killed and hung after the Appin
Massacre of 1816.
[6] HRA,
Series 1 Volume 12, vii
[7] HRA,
Series 1 Volume 12, vii, viii
[8] Ibid.
[9] Brucedale is the Suttor’s landholding.
[10]
‘Sunday, has a remarkably strong frame of body, and
when holding his club or waddy, would not be a bad representative for a
Hercules’. Is this the same ‘Sunday’ William Cox writes
about - ‘The big black fellow “Sunday”
affirmed that he owned all the land about Mudgee’ (The Memoirs of William Cox, p. 130)?
[11] The
Australian 14 October 1826, pp. 3,4
[12] HRA,
Series 1 Volume 12, viii
[13] Suttor, W. H. Australian Stories Retold and Sketches of
Country Life, p. 45
[14] There is now
increasing evidence that this was enforced with punishment: that cultural
practices, law and languages were forbidden and anyone caught was likewise
punished. Lives were controlled by the State
into my lifetime (‘Aboriginal Protection Act and Regulations’) positioning
Aboriginal peoples as foreigners and prisoners in their own Country. Freedom of movement came with a price – a
signed ‘Letter of Exemption’ on being considered of ‘good character’, ie.
Christian and not mixing with other Aboriginal peoples which could include
family if you still knew who and where they were after being forcibly removed
and renamed.
[15] Wiradjuri
woman Brenda Matthews in The
Last Daughter, https://www.thelastdaughter.com.au/ and https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-04-27/last-daughter-film-brenda-matthews-story-stolen-generation/102267702
[16] Museums of History, Reel
3706. Traditional names appear to have
been recorded in the Mudgee/Dabee list. It is impossible to know if ‘Sunday’ is
the same ‘chief’ who ‘owned all the land about Mudgee’ mentioned by Cox and if he is the same
warrior ‘Sunday’ named in the newspapers.
I hope that one day these questions can be answered.
[17] Ibid.
[18]
National Museum of Australia, https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/aboriginal-breastplates/list/other
[19]
The Wellington Valley Project, Vol 3: The Papers of James Gunther
1837-42. The
University of Newcastle, Faculty of Education and Arts, School of Humanities
and Social Science. Journal 5: October to December 1838, p.3.
[20] Gunther ends up falling out with the Mission’s
founder, Reverend Watson, because of Watson’s practice of forcibly removing Aboriginal
children from their parents without their consent. The mission closes in 1844.
[21] ‘To feed them is indeed necessary if we want them to stay with
us…For as their natural resources decrease; by the increase of European
settlements, it is not a very easy thing for them to obtain their subsistence
in the bush in our immediate neighbourhood so that that they are tempted to go
& beg from station to station’ (Journal 31 March, 1838). On the
Europeans/stations providing food – ‘the Blacks must be thankful if they are
allowed to exist and get occasionally a feed with Europeans…not…given out of
kindness but often…to prevail on the Native men to lend their wives’ (Gunther
to Coates, 30 November, 1838).
What is also interesting is the Mission’s determination to convert the
local Aboriginal peoples, who appear to be more accommodating on the surface,
compared to the clergy’s lack of similar attention to many Europeans in the
area – ‘but our European population have no regard for the means of grace;
those who live within two or three miles of us, very rarely, many never, attend
Church’ (20 October 1839). This is not
lost on the Wiradjuri – ‘“Why don’t you talk that way to White fellas?” as much
as to say, “Begin with your own countrymen, to make them better.”’ (14 March,
1838). During his time at the Mission
Rev. Gunther makes a number of excursions around the surrounding ‘stations’ and
‘black camps’, including at Mudgee, to offer his services and convert.
[22] Indigenous Law Resources: https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/other/IndigLRes/1840/1.html
[23] HRA, Series 1, Vol. 21, pp. 733-737
[24]
In 1878 and 1881 there are reports of Aboriginal skeletons being dug up by
contractors during building work in Lawson and Court Streets and ‘evidence of a
number of other Aboriginal burials in those areas’ (Mudgee Historical Society).
I have not yet found any information to indicate who this man and woman
are, whether or where they are reburied or what happened to the Aboriginal
cemetery at the rear of the gaol.
[25]
G. Gipps, 13 March 1844, Blankets 1844, Minute
6237, [4/6291]
[26] Rev. Gunther also addresses loss of Traditional lands and lifestyle and how, that since all has been taken from the Wiradjuri, the only avenue left for survival is dependency on British hand-outs. Although Gunther shows some level of understanding of the Wiradjuri’s plight his belief in British-European cultural superiority and lack of real understanding and empathy in relation to how the Wiradjuri and neighbouring clans have been treated, and how it is impacting on their culture and sense of being, is palpable. (https://hunterlivinghistories.com/2015/05/11/1846-aborigines/.) In the 1845 Report held by the University of Newcastle responses are from ‘The Magistrates of Mudgee’ (Henry Bayly, Robert Lowe, William W. Lowe, and Nicholas Paget Bayly, Esquires, Justices of the Peace, Mudgee). Rev. Gunther's second letter with the list of names is dated 26 July, possibly 1837 or 1857 (writing unclear) – Ref. Correspondence, 1826-1878, CYReel 872, ML A1450.
[27]
Isaac Fitzsimmons, who
has land at Queens Pinch, ‘always allowed
travelling aboriginal hunters after 1884 to camp on & hunt roos on his
place each year for many years, without any problems’ (correspondence with Owen
Fitzsimmons, 28 June 2023)
[28] The Wiradjuri and other Aboriginal workers are not
necessarily paid. Reverend Gunther, 1846
– ‘They are
usually remunerated in food, clothing, tobacco; in some instances, they have
also received money’. It goes without
saying that they are never paid for their land even though those that had taken
it from them sell it on, including to my ancestors.
[29] Mundy, Geoffrey Charles. Our Antipodes, Chpt. VI: Aborigines.
[30] The
phrase comes from the second lecture of anthropologist W.E.H. Stanner’s 1968
Boyer Lectures ‘After the Dreaming’ to explain ‘the ‘cult of disremembering…forgetfulness…self-interest’
“practiced on a national scale, where Australians do not just fail to acknowledge the atrocities of
the past but choose to not think about them at all, to the point of forgetting
that these events ever happened.” (Australian Museum: https://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/unsettled/healing-nations/the-great-australian-silence/ )
[31] University of Newcastle and the work
of the late Emerita Professor Lyndall Ryan.
Colonial Frontiers Massacres in Australia,
1788-1930, Timeline, https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/timeline.php.
And recently released Stephen Gapps (2025). Uprising:
War in the Colony of NSW 1838-1844.
[32] State Library
of NSW online. https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/major-james-nunn-australian-mounted-infantry
[33] Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, Vol. 19
(July 1837-January 1839, p.399)
[34]
National Museum of
Australia, https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/myall-creek-massacre
[35]
Byrne, J.C, 1848, Twelve Years’
Wanderings in the British Colonies from 1835 to 1847, Vol.2, Richard
Bentley, London, pp. 226-232
[36]
Sydney Morning Herald, August 24, 1842, p 2 and correspondence with Nola
Turner-Jensen.
[37]
Professor Peter Read
in What The Colonists Never Knew, p.
109
[38]
The Last Daughter, https://www.thelastdaughter.com.au/ .
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